Kamis, 23 November 2017
The History of the Laptop Computer
Laptops, also known as notebooks, are computers that can be carried about easily. Unlike desktops, they can be placed on the lap without stress. However, the laptops available today were not like that when they were first invented. Through the years, efforts were made to make them more appealing. A proper understanding of what laptops looked like can be gotten by studying their history. When you read about the history of the laptop you will see portable computers mentioned quite often. A portable computer is different from a laptop in that it was portable but was too big to be set on the lap; therefore portable computers are slightly different than laptops.
The first laptop was known as the Dynabook. It was invented in 1968 by Alan Kay. It was also called a tablet PC or slate computer because of its very flat shape. It was invented particularly for children to gain access to digital media. However, as years went by, it also became useful for more tasks such as operations documentation for the military.
The first portable computer was invented in April 1976 by Xerox PARC Company. This one was called the Xerox Note Taker because it was designed to implement new technology and show what could be done. People that helped in the design were Adele Goldberg, Douglas Fairbairn and Larry Tesler. It had slow processing speeds, mouse, floppy disk drive and very high cost of production.
The first laptop was known as the Dynabook. It was invented in 1968 by Alan Kay. It was also called a tablet PC or slate computer because of its very flat shape. It was invented particularly for children to gain access to digital media. However, as years went by, it also became useful for more tasks such as operations documentation for the military.
The first portable computer was invented in April 1976 by Xerox PARC Company. This one was called the Xerox Note Taker because it was designed to implement new technology and show what could be done. People that helped in the design were Adele Goldberg, Douglas Fairbairn and Larry Tesler. It had slow processing speeds, mouse, floppy disk drive and very high cost of production.
This invention was a good foundation for other computer corporations. In 1981, the Osborne Computer Corporation invented the first commercial portable computer. The name of this portable computer was Osborne 1. It was named after Adam Osborne, the designer of the product. The Osborne 1 was widely accepted as the first commercial portable computer because it weighed less than that of the Xerox Note Taker. Moreover, its foldable nature and lighter weight made it more appealing to several people who were ready to buy it. Software that came with Osborne 1 were CP/M utility, SuperCalc spreadsheet, WordStar word processing (combined with MailMerge) and digital research programming languages such as MBASIC and CBASIC. The costs of these programs were approximately $1,500 though the laptop was sold at about $1,795.
Many of the early laptops were based off of the first portable computers including the Xerox Note Taker and Osborne 1. Bondwell 2 was produced in 1985. It used CP/M as an operating system and a Z-80 CPU at four megahertz. It also had 64K RAM and 3.5 inches floppy disk drive. Bondwell 2 was one of the first laptops to have an LCD screen.
The Compaq portable was produced in 1983 by the Compaq Computer Corporation. It was the first portable computer produced by the company. Between 1981 and 1983, the Epson HX-20 became the most popular non clamshell laptop. EPSON HX-20 had 68 keys on the keyboard. Apart from electricity, it was also powered with nickel-cadmium batteries. Its RAM size was between 16KB and 32KB.
The Grid Compass was one of the most attractive laptops. In fact, a lot of people have the opinion that it was the first unique laptop. Bill Moggridge began its design in 1979 and finally released it in 1982. As a result of its high cost, many people were not able to afford it. Nevertheless, it was very important to the US military and NASA.
Another portable computer without a clamshell that was introduced in the 1980s was the TRS-80 model 100. It had a keyboard and LCD display, batteries as an alternative source of power and a very small size. It was first sold in Japan as Kyotronic 85 and some years later, Tandy Corporation took over the company to boost sales in the US, Canada and other countries worldwide.
Other noteworthy, early laptops were the Galivan SC and the Sharp PC-5000. These were both unveiled in 1983 but not sold until 1984. The Galivan model was the very first computer to actually be marketed as a laptop. These laptops were both IBM compatible but mainly ran on their own system software.
Today, laptops have become more useful than what they were known for in the past. This is because there have been many improvements over the years as technology has advanced. Operating systems have become much more advanced. Laptops have also gotten much smaller in size as technology has developed; they are much smaller and less weighty than their older counterparts. Laptops continue to improve as technology advances.
Today, laptops have become more useful than what they were known for in the past. This is because there have been many improvements over the years as technology has advanced. Operating systems have become much more advanced. Laptops have also gotten much smaller in size as technology has developed; they are much smaller and less weighty than their older counterparts. Laptops continue to improve as technology advances.
To learn more about the history of laptops, the following links will be helpful.
- Osborne 1: The link contains the selling price, year of invention, the inventor and other important details about the Osborne 1.
- Dynabook History: Some of the computers that were developed before the modern laptops include Dynabook, Osborne and slate computers.
- The Dynabook: The idea for the Dynabook began as early as the 1960s. Its design looks very different from what is obtainable today in the computer production.
- The GRiD Compass: Pictures and features of the first non-clamshell laptops- the GRiD Compass are illustrated on this page.
- The World's First Laptop: Osborne 1 is being regarded as the first true portable laptop in the world. The cost and features are described on the page.
- A Look at Laptop History: This PDF file contains information on how laptops developed between 1968 and 2010.
- 1983 Compaq Portable: The page shows the steps that led to the production of the Compaq Portable.
- Inventory of laptop screen types: Concise database of laptop models and the display types fitted to them.
Sumber:
http://www.laptop-lcd-screen.co.uk/shop/historyofthelaptopcomputer.asp
When were mobile phones first invented?
Mobile phones, particularly the smartphones that have become our inseparable companions today, are relatively new.However, the history of mobile phones goes back to 1908 when a US Patent was issued in Kentucky for a wireless telephone.
Mobile phones were invented as early as the 1940s when engineers working at AT&T developed cells for mobile phone base stations.
The very first mobile phones were not really mobile phones at all. They were two-way radios that allowed people like taxi drivers and the emergency services to communicate.
Instead of relying on base stations with separate cells (and the signal being passed from one cell to another), the first mobile phone networks involved one very powerful base station covering a much wider area.
Motorola, on 3 April 1973 were first company to mass produce the the first handheld mobile phone.
These early mobile phones are often referred to as 0G mobile phones, or Zero Generation mobile phones. Most phones today rely on 3G or 4G mobile technology.
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The development of mobile phone technology
The first mobile phone invented for practical use was by a Motorola employee called Martin Cooper who is widely considered to be a key player in the history of mobile phones.
Handsets that could be used in a vehicle had been developed prior to Martin Cooper’s phone, but his was the first usable truly portable mobile telephone.
Cooper made mobile phone history in April 1973 when he made the first ever call on a handheld mobile phone.
Landmarks in early mobile phone history
- Japan became the first country to have a city-wide commercial cellular mobile phone network in 1979.
- The Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system launched in Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Finland in 1981.
- The next major step in mobile phone history was in the mid-eighties with the First Generation (1G) fully automatic cellular networks were introduced.
- The first ever mobile phone to be approved by the FCC (Federal Communications Commission) in the USA was the Motorola DynaTac in 1983.
Modern mobiles
Mobile telephony developed in leaps and bounds over the next decade, particularly with the arrival of handover technology.
This allowed users to keep their connections as they travelled between base stations – so as a user walked from one mobile phone mast to another, the connection and conversation would not drop or be interrupted.
The birth of the Second Generation (2G) mobile phones was in Finland in 1993. It was also the year that the first SMS text messages were sent and that data services began to appear on mobile phones.
Mobiles that we use today are 3G mobiles, or Third Generation mobiles, or even more advanced 4G handsets.
3G launched in 2001 and allowed operators to offer a huge range of advanced services such as video calling and HSPA data transmission.
4G became commerically available in the UK in late 2012 and offers super fast connections and similarly speedy downloads.
Now the UK market has matured there are several network providers competing for business. These include:
Find out more about 4G phones here: Guide to 4G phones.
Eyebrows are one of the most misunderstood areas of makeup artistry, and having an artist’s understanding of eyebrows is crucial to impeccable makeup.
As a makeup artist, you need to be situational when correcting, filling in or shaping a brow -- making decisions based on the needs of your client and the final look you trying to create. Many makeup artists want to add a dramatic eyebrow into every makeup application, but an inappropriate eyebrow can age your client, distort the shape of the face, provide an unwanted emotion or take away from the desired focal point of your makeup design.
Tweezers and Scissors
Tweezers and scissors are your first line of defense against offensive brows. With these tools, you can create shape as well as adjust thickness and length. Every artist should have a great pair of slant tweezers (some artists favorites are Tweezerman and Lavaque) as well as safety scissors, which are essential for trimming and adjusting.
For a true artist trick, try a pair of “twissors” (a scissor-tweezer hybrid) from Alcone or Cinema Secrets. Because they can cut hair really close to the skin without cutting the skin itself, twissors make eyebrow sculpting even easier: you can get rid of hairs that are too long or growing in the wrong direction without the time commitment of tweezing, or redness it can cause. I also recommend carrying a brush or comb for setting the brow hairs into place.
Pencils
Many artists leave eyebrow pencils out of their makeup arsenal, but don’t make that mistake—pencils are a must-have. Pencils work perfectly on brows, because the marks sit on top of the skin and add dimension, providing volume to a flat or thin brows. Use them to fill in sparse or patchy eyebrows with a natural look that mimics missing hairs. I prefer mechanical pencils, as the thinner tip allows for precise application and appears more natural. My favorites include Kevyn Aucoin’s The Precision Brow Pencil, MAC Eye Brows, and Anastasia Brow Wiz.
Powders and Shadows
Shadows and other powder-based products bring dimension and depth to brows, especially those that might are on the too-full side. They are also ideal for long wear and allow a range of effects from natural to dramatic. I prefer those that are dense in pigment and have a matte finish. I recommend carrying powders from soft taupes to rich browns to complement natural eye and hair hues, as well as burgundy and burnt sienna for matching processed hair colors. Try Too Faced’s Brow Envy Kit, Senna Cosmetics Brow Book, or Inglot Cosmetics Matte Eye Shadows in any shade.
Gels and Waxes
Gels and waxes are wonderful for lightening a darker brow or holding a disorderly one in place. Softening or sculpting the brow can take years off of the face and can help spotlight certain elements of the face. For example, if you want the focus to be a smoky eye, lightening up the eyebrow a few shades can direct attention where you want or need it. For a collection that’s as universal as possible, carry brow gels or waxes in clear, blonde, ash, and taupe. Many brands have amazing brow gels, but some of my favorite shades come from Anastasia and MAC. Make Up For Ever’s Aqua Brow is a waterproof formula that stays put in every situation.
Pro Tips
For a modern brow, you need to see skin and individual hairs. I also aim to have high and low points in every brow look I create. A great pro trick is to use a brow pen or gel liner with a small precision brush to mimic the look of individual hairs. Just a few subtle strokes can make even the thinnest or most over tweezed eyebrows look terrific. I love pens specifically designed for this purpose, like Anastasia’s Brow Pen, but a brown gel liner from any line will do.
Great eyebrows are a secret essential element. When applied correctly, an eyebrow frames the eye, flatters the face, and provides balance without competing with the rest of your makeup. Be prepared to deliver the perfect eyebrow with every application, and your makeup will always be beauty page perfection.
Sumber:
https://www.beautylish.com/a/vxypi/how-to-get-the-perfect-eyebrow-building-your-kit
You Have a Trendy Clothing Personality!
Having a Trendy Clothing Personality/fashion persona means that you like to wear all kinds of trends - often all at the same time and you manage to look good! Your style is up-to-date without the constraints of traditional fashion.
Your celebrity style twins: Jessica Simpson (Trendy, Classic & Romantic), Beyoncé, Miley Cyrus, Hilary Duff, Paris Hilton (Trendy & Dramatic), Jennifer Hudson, Kimora Lee Simmons, Alicia Keys, Rihanna (Trendy & Creative), Beyonce, Gwen Stefani, Avril Lavigne, Kristen Stewart, Kristen Bell (Trendy & Romantic), Miranda Kerr (Trendy & Natural), Jessica Alba (Trendy & Natural) This fashion persona covers a variety of sub-categories (or you could call it "mixes"), mainly because women who have this as their dominant clothing personality tend to have scattered closet choices. I would say that a Trendy fashion persona is mainly divided by these general 3 fashion looks:
- (1) Sassy (overlaps with Dramatic and Romantic - girly, alluring and a bit matchy-matchy with a touch of drama)
- (2) Urban (inspired by urban culture mixed with sporty-casual details)
- and (3) Eclectic (think street style which is fashion worn by people for people. Overlaps with Creative)
It's most likely that you try to keep yourself abreast of the latest trends, and the do's and don'ts of fashion. But you may be very well the trendsetter among your friends - picking up outside inspiration and making them into your own style. You can be very spontaneous when shopping for new clothes and tend to choose on impulse.
Your jewelry drawers are probably adorned by large hoop earrings (doorknockers, bamboo shaped earrings, etc.) or anything that looks edgy but cool, gold chains, often with lots of sparkly faux diamonds. You might also have some studded accessories lurking around in your closet.
You love mixing bold colors, like for example hot pink with electric blue. Creating a fun, edgy and innovative fashion statement is a part of your style. Sumber:
http://www.thechicfashionista.com/trendy-clothing-personality.html
Fashion is essentially the most popular mode of expression: It describes the ever-changing style of clothes worn by those with cultural status. A fashion trend occurs when others mimic or emulate this clothing style. Fashions vary greatly within a society over time, but also are affected by age, occupation, sexual orientation, location and social class. Today, a fashion trend starts with fashion designers, who design a spring and fall collection based on cues and inspiration they’ve gathered throughout the season. These cues can include popular culture, celebrities, music, politics, nature or something else entirely.
At spring and fall runway shows, fashion designers showcase their designs to photographers, writers, buyers, and celebrities. The photos and fashion features the writers and photographers produce as well as the purchasing action taken by retail buyers and fashion-forward celebrities influence the way in which the mass population receives the designer’s work.
Other designers draw their inspiration from these fashion designers and create affordable designs for the mass market. The fashion trend then continues in malls, shopping centers and boutiques around the area. Some trends start in one country and span multiple countries, while others remain confined to one region.
Fashion Trends 1960-PresentFashion in the 1960s reflected the cultural and political upheaval of the time. The hippie and counterculture movement gave rise to accessories like Pocahontas-style headbands and medallions worn around the neck. Hippies wore long, loosely fitting clothing, often in natural fabrics. Hemlines rose as Mary Quant popularized the miniskirt and hot pants in her lines for JC Penney. And mod fashion, with brightly colored space-age geometric patterns, shift dresses and colored tights became the mainstream. Both miniskirts and mod-shift dresses were worn with knee-high go-go boots.
At spring and fall runway shows, fashion designers showcase their designs to photographers, writers, buyers, and celebrities. The photos and fashion features the writers and photographers produce as well as the purchasing action taken by retail buyers and fashion-forward celebrities influence the way in which the mass population receives the designer’s work.
Other designers draw their inspiration from these fashion designers and create affordable designs for the mass market. The fashion trend then continues in malls, shopping centers and boutiques around the area. Some trends start in one country and span multiple countries, while others remain confined to one region.
Fashion Trends 1960-PresentFashion in the 1960s reflected the cultural and political upheaval of the time. The hippie and counterculture movement gave rise to accessories like Pocahontas-style headbands and medallions worn around the neck. Hippies wore long, loosely fitting clothing, often in natural fabrics. Hemlines rose as Mary Quant popularized the miniskirt and hot pants in her lines for JC Penney. And mod fashion, with brightly colored space-age geometric patterns, shift dresses and colored tights became the mainstream. Both miniskirts and mod-shift dresses were worn with knee-high go-go boots.
Fashion is essentially the most popular mode of expression: It describes the ever-changing style of clothes worn by those with cultural status. A fashion trend occurs when others mimic or emulate this clothing style. Fashions vary greatly within a society over time, but also are affected by age, occupation, sexual orientation, location and social class. Today, a fashion trend starts with fashion designers, who design a spring and fall collection based on cues and inspiration they’ve gathered throughout the season. These cues can include popular culture, celebrities, music, politics, nature or something else entirely.
At spring and fall runway shows, fashion designers showcase their designs to photographers, writers, buyers, and celebrities. The photos and fashion features the writers and photographers produce as well as the purchasing action taken by retail buyers and fashion-forward celebrities influence the way in which the mass population receives the designer’s work.
Other designers draw their inspiration from these fashion designers and create affordable designs for the mass market. The fashion trend then continues in malls, shopping centers and boutiques around the area. Some trends start in one country and span multiple countries, while others remain confined to one region.
Fashion Trends 1960-PresentFashion in the 1960s reflected the cultural and political upheaval of the time. The hippie and counterculture movement gave rise to accessories like Pocahontas-style headbands and medallions worn around the neck. Hippies wore long, loosely fitting clothing, often in natural fabrics. Hemlines rose as Mary Quant popularized the miniskirt and hot pants in her lines for JC Penney. And mod fashion, with brightly colored space-age geometric patterns, shift dresses and colored tights became the mainstream. Both miniskirts and mod-shift dresses were worn with knee-high go-go boots.
At spring and fall runway shows, fashion designers showcase their designs to photographers, writers, buyers, and celebrities. The photos and fashion features the writers and photographers produce as well as the purchasing action taken by retail buyers and fashion-forward celebrities influence the way in which the mass population receives the designer’s work.
Other designers draw their inspiration from these fashion designers and create affordable designs for the mass market. The fashion trend then continues in malls, shopping centers and boutiques around the area. Some trends start in one country and span multiple countries, while others remain confined to one region.
Fashion Trends 1960-PresentFashion in the 1960s reflected the cultural and political upheaval of the time. The hippie and counterculture movement gave rise to accessories like Pocahontas-style headbands and medallions worn around the neck. Hippies wore long, loosely fitting clothing, often in natural fabrics. Hemlines rose as Mary Quant popularized the miniskirt and hot pants in her lines for JC Penney. And mod fashion, with brightly colored space-age geometric patterns, shift dresses and colored tights became the mainstream. Both miniskirts and mod-shift dresses were worn with knee-high go-go boots.
Fashion is essentially the most popular mode of expression: It describes the ever-changing style of clothes worn by those with cultural status. A fashion trend occurs when others mimic or emulate this clothing style. Fashions vary greatly within a society over time, but also are affected by age, occupation, sexual orientation, location and social class. Today, a fashion trend starts with fashion designers, who design a spring and fall collection based on cues and inspiration they’ve gathered throughout the season. These cues can include popular culture, celebrities, music, politics, nature or something else entirely.
At spring and fall runway shows, fashion designers showcase their designs to photographers, writers, buyers, and celebrities. The photos and fashion features the writers and photographers produce as well as the purchasing action taken by retail buyers and fashion-forward celebrities influence the way in which the mass population receives the designer’s work.
Other designers draw their inspiration from these fashion designers and create affordable designs for the mass market. The fashion trend then continues in malls, shopping centers and boutiques around the area. Some trends start in one country and span multiple countries, while others remain confined to one region.
Fashion Trends 1960-PresentFashion in the 1960s reflected the cultural and political upheaval of the time. The hippie and counterculture movement gave rise to accessories like Pocahontas-style headbands and medallions worn around the neck. Hippies wore long, loosely fitting clothing, often in natural fabrics. Hemlines rose as Mary Quant popularized the miniskirt and hot pants in her lines for JC Penney. And mod fashion, with brightly colored space-age geometric patterns, shift dresses and colored tights became the mainstream. Both miniskirts and mod-shift dresses were worn with knee-high go-go boots.
At spring and fall runway shows, fashion designers showcase their designs to photographers, writers, buyers, and celebrities. The photos and fashion features the writers and photographers produce as well as the purchasing action taken by retail buyers and fashion-forward celebrities influence the way in which the mass population receives the designer’s work.
Other designers draw their inspiration from these fashion designers and create affordable designs for the mass market. The fashion trend then continues in malls, shopping centers and boutiques around the area. Some trends start in one country and span multiple countries, while others remain confined to one region.
Fashion Trends 1960-PresentFashion in the 1960s reflected the cultural and political upheaval of the time. The hippie and counterculture movement gave rise to accessories like Pocahontas-style headbands and medallions worn around the neck. Hippies wore long, loosely fitting clothing, often in natural fabrics. Hemlines rose as Mary Quant popularized the miniskirt and hot pants in her lines for JC Penney. And mod fashion, with brightly colored space-age geometric patterns, shift dresses and colored tights became the mainstream. Both miniskirts and mod-shift dresses were worn with knee-high go-go boots.
Designers like Emilio Pucci revolutionized the era with his psychedelic fabric prints, and fashion icons like Jackie Onassis Kennedy were the picture of feminine class and sophistication. The 1960s were also influenced by the development of synthetic yarns, which gave way to fabrics like polyester, spandex and lycra, all of which are still used today.
During the 1970s, the loose-fitting hippie clothes of the prior decade gave way to exotic fabrics and bell-bottom jeans for men and women. Hemlines continued to rise and hot pants continued their popularity, reflecting the flashy style of the decade. However, the 1970s also saw the popularity of a longer hemline, from mid-calf to ankle-length. Women wore peasant-style clothing, especially blouses with off-the-shoulder necklines and lace trim, with their jeans or skirts. Embroidered clothing became especially popular with this trend. Disco fashion emerged, featuring bright patterns and tightly fitting clothing meant to show off the body. Platform shoes elevated their wearer, male or female, anywhere from two to four inches or more.
The carefree disco movement inspired its antithesis, the angry punk movement. Fueled by designers like Vivienne Westwood and bands like the Sex Pistols, the punk movement was an aggressive reaction to the economic and political situation of the time. With dyed Mohawks, studded and spiked leather jackets, combat boots and body piercings, punks were everything the glamorous and decadent disco-loving mainstream was not. Punk clothing often had a ‘do it yourself’ quality. Safety pins replaced buttons or seams, and details like studs or spikes were added to pants and jackets by the wearer.
During the 1970s, the loose-fitting hippie clothes of the prior decade gave way to exotic fabrics and bell-bottom jeans for men and women. Hemlines continued to rise and hot pants continued their popularity, reflecting the flashy style of the decade. However, the 1970s also saw the popularity of a longer hemline, from mid-calf to ankle-length. Women wore peasant-style clothing, especially blouses with off-the-shoulder necklines and lace trim, with their jeans or skirts. Embroidered clothing became especially popular with this trend. Disco fashion emerged, featuring bright patterns and tightly fitting clothing meant to show off the body. Platform shoes elevated their wearer, male or female, anywhere from two to four inches or more.
The carefree disco movement inspired its antithesis, the angry punk movement. Fueled by designers like Vivienne Westwood and bands like the Sex Pistols, the punk movement was an aggressive reaction to the economic and political situation of the time. With dyed Mohawks, studded and spiked leather jackets, combat boots and body piercings, punks were everything the glamorous and decadent disco-loving mainstream was not. Punk clothing often had a ‘do it yourself’ quality. Safety pins replaced buttons or seams, and details like studs or spikes were added to pants and jackets by the wearer.
The 1980s saw another fashion upheaval. Angst-ridden punks wore Dr. Marten and steel-toed army boots, chains, tartan patterns, and bondage pants. Punks focused more on their hair during this period, dying, teasing and chopping their hair into asymmetric styles that seemed to defy gravity. Women—and men—experimented with heavy eyeliner in a variety of colors. Women wore neon colors, jelly shoes, tight jeans, leggings, leg warmers and oversized sweatshirts. Menswear-inspired looks also became popular for both sexes. Men wore ‘power suits,’ named so for their price, which made these suits a reflection of the wealth of the wearer. Women’s jackets featured big shoulder pads that made the shoulders appear higher and larger, similar to the male silhouette.
Miniskirts were made in denim, leather and knit fabrics and were often worn over leggings. The movie Flashdance popularized dancewear, ripped sweatshirts and leg warmers for daywear. And entertainer Madonna made exposed undergarments, fishnet stockings, gloves, and layers of beaded necklaces in vogue. Accessories for women were large, gaudy and brightly colored. It became socially acceptable for cosmopolitan women to showcase their wealth through the value of their jewelry. Glasses and sunglasses with large, plastic frames were worn by both sexes.
Miniskirts were made in denim, leather and knit fabrics and were often worn over leggings. The movie Flashdance popularized dancewear, ripped sweatshirts and leg warmers for daywear. And entertainer Madonna made exposed undergarments, fishnet stockings, gloves, and layers of beaded necklaces in vogue. Accessories for women were large, gaudy and brightly colored. It became socially acceptable for cosmopolitan women to showcase their wealth through the value of their jewelry. Glasses and sunglasses with large, plastic frames were worn by both sexes.
Other fashion trends included acid-washed jeans or parachute pants, jean jackets, polo shirts with the collar up, high-top shoes, and baggy blazers with the sleeves rolled up. And throughout the 1980s, athletic shoes became increasingly prized, rising in price as well as popularity.
Sumber:
Legendary foundations and prehistory
According to the legendary Historia Regum Britanniae, by Geoffrey of Monmouth, London was founded by Brutus of Troy about 1000–1100 B.C. after he defeated the native giant Gogmagog; the settlement was known as Caer Troia, Troia Nova (Latin for New Troy), which, according to a pseudo-etymology, was corrupted to Trinovantum. Trinovantes were the Iron Age tribe who inhabited the area prior to the Romans. Geoffrey provides prehistoric London with a rich array of legendary kings, such as Lud (see also Lludd, from Welsh mythology) who, he claims, renamed the town Caer Ludein, from which London was derived, and was buried at Ludgate.
Some recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area. In 1999, the remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found, again on the foreshore south of Vauxhall Bridge.[1] This bridge either crossed the Thames, or went to a now lost island in the river. Dendrology dated the timbers to 1500BCE.[1] In 2001 a further dig found that the timbers were driven vertically into the ground on the south bank of the Thames west of Vauxhall Bridge.[2] In 2010 the foundations of a large timber structure, dated to 4000BCE, were found on the Thames foreshore, south of Vauxhall Bridge.[3] The function of the mesolithic structure is not known. All these structures are on the south bank at a natural crossing point where the River Effra flows into the Thames.[3]
Numerous finds[4] have been made of spear heads and weaponry from the Bronze and Iron Ages near the banks of the Thames in the London area, many of which had clearly been used in battle. This suggests that the Thames was an important tribal boundary.
Early history
Roman London (43-410 CE)
Carausius coin from Londinium mint.
Medal of Constantius I capturing London (inscribed as LON) in 296 after defeating Allectus. Beaurains hoard.
Londinium was established as a civilian town by the Romans about seven years after the invasion of CE 43. London, like Rome, was founded on the point of the river where it was narrow enough to bridge and the strategic location of the city provided easy access to much of Europe. Early Roman London occupied a relatively small area, roughly equivalent to the size of Hyde Park. In around CE 60, it was destroyed by the Iceni led by their queen Boudica. The city was quickly rebuilt as a planned Roman town and recovered after perhaps 10 years, the city growing rapidly over the following decades.
During the 2nd century Londinium was at its height and replaced Colchester as the capital of Roman Britain (Britannia). Its population was around 60,000 inhabitants. It boasted major public buildings, including the largest basilica north of the Alps, temples, bath houses, an amphitheatre and a large fort for the city garrison. Political instability and recession from the 3rd century onwards led to a slow decline.
At some time between 180 and 225 CE the Romans built the defensive London Wall around the landward side of the city. The wall was about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) long, 6 metres (20 ft) high, and 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) thick. The wall would survive for another 1,600 years and define the City of London's perimeters for centuries to come. The perimeters of the present City are roughly defined by the line of the ancient wall.
Londonium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.[5]
In the late 3rd century, Londinium was raided on several occasions by Saxon pirates.[citation needed] This led, from around 255 onwards, to the construction of an additional riverside wall. Six of the traditional seven city gates of London are of Roman origin, namely: Ludgate, Newgate, Aldersgate, Cripplegate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate (Moorgate is the exception, being of medieval origin).
By the 5th century the Roman Empire was in rapid decline, and in 410 CE the Roman occupation of Britain came to an end. Following this, the Roman city also went into rapid decline and by the end of the 5th century was practically abandoned.
Anglo-Saxon London (5th century – 1066 CE)
Until recently it was believed that Anglo-Saxon settlement initially avoided the area immediately around Londinium. However, the discovery in 2008 of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Covent Garden indicates that the incomers had begun to settle there at least as early as the 6th century and possibly in the 5th. The main focus of this settlement was outside the Roman walls, clustering a short distance to the west along what is now the Strand, between the Aldwych and Trafalgar Square. It was known as Lundenwic, the -wic suffix here denoting a trading settlement. Recent excavations have also highlighted the population density and relatively sophisticated urban organisation of this earlier Anglo-Saxon London, which was laid out on a grid pattern and grew to house a likely population of 10-12,000.
Early Anglo-Saxon London belonged to a people known as the Middle Saxons, from whom the name of the county of Middlesex is derived, but who probably also occupied the approximate area of modern Hertfordshire and Surrey. However, by the early 7th century the London area had been incorporated into the kingdom of the East Saxons. In 604 King Saeberht of Essex converted to Christianity and London received Mellitus, its first post-Roman bishop.
At this time Essex was under the overlordship of King Æthelberht of Kent, and it was under Æthelberht's patronage that Mellitus founded the first St. Paul's Cathedral, traditionally said to be on the site of an old Roman Temple of Diana (although Christopher Wren found no evidence of this). It would have only been a modest church at first and may well have been destroyed after he was expelled from the city by Saeberht's pagan successors.
The permanent establishment of Christianity in the East Saxon kingdom took place in the reign of King Sigeberht II in the 650s. During the 8th century the kingdom of Mercia extended its dominance over south-eastern England, initially through overlordship which at times developed into outright annexation. London seems to have come under direct Mercian control in the 730s.
Viking attacks dominated most of the 9th century, becoming increasingly common from around 830 onwards. London was sacked in 842 and again in 851. The Danish "Great Heathen Army", which had rampaged across England since 865, wintered in London in 871. The city remained in Danish hands until 886, when it was captured by the forces of King Alfred the Great of Wessex and reincorporated into Mercia, then governed under Alfred's sovereignty by his son-in-law Ealdorman Æthelred.
Around this time the focus of settlement moved within the old Roman walls for the sake of defence, and the city became known as Lundenburh. The Roman walls were repaired and the defensive ditch re-cut, while the bridge was probably rebuilt at this time. A second fortified Borough was established on the south bank at Southwark, the Suthringa Geworc (defensive work of the men of Surrey). The old settlement of Lundenwic became known as the ealdwic or "old settlement", a name which survives today as Aldwich.
From this point, the City of London began to develop its own unique local government. Following Ethelred's death in 911 it was transferred to Wessex, preceding the absorption of the rest of Mercia in 918. Although it faced competition for political pre-eminence in the united Kingdom of England from the traditional West Saxon centre of Winchester, London's size and commercial wealth brought it a steadily increasing importance as a focus of governmental activity. King Athelstan held many meetings of the witan in London and issued laws from there, while King Æthelred the Unready issued the Laws of London there in 978.
Following the resumption of Viking attacks in the reign of Ethelred, London was unsuccessfully attacked in 994 by an army under King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark. As English resistance to the sustained and escalating Danish onslaught finally collapsed in 1013, London repulsed an attack by the Danes and was the last place to hold out while the rest of the country submitted to Sweyn, but by the end of the year it too capitulated and Æthelred fled abroad. Sweyn died just five weeks after having been proclaimed king and Æthelred was restored to the throne, but Sweyn's son Cnut returned to the attack in 1015.
After Æthelred's death at London in 1016 his son Edmund Ironside was proclaimed king there by the witangemot and left to gather forces in Wessex. London was then subjected to a systematic siege by Cnut but was relieved by King Edmund's army; when Edmund again left to recruit reinforcements in Wessex the Danes resumed the siege but were again unsuccessful. However, following his defeat at the Battle of Assandun Edmund ceded to Cnut all of England north of the Thames, including London, and his death a few weeks later left Cnut in control of the whole country.
A Norse saga tells of a battle when King Æthelred returned to attack Danish-occupied London. According to the saga, the Danes lined London Bridge and showered the attackers with spears. Undaunted, the attackers pulled the roofs off nearby houses and held them over their heads in the boats. Thus protected, they were able to get close enough to the bridge to attach ropes to the piers and pull the bridge down, thus ending the Viking occupation of London. This story presumably relates to Æthelred's return to power after Sweyn's death in 1014, but there is no strong evidence of any such struggle for control of London on that occasion.
Following the extinction of Cnut's dynasty in 1042 English rule was restored under Edward the Confessor. He was responsible for the foundation of Westminster Abbey and spent much of his time at Westminster, which from this time steadily supplanted the City itself as the centre of government. Edward's death at Westminster in 1066 without a clear heir led to a succession dispute and the Norman conquest of England. Earl Harold Godwinson was elected king by the witangemot and crowned in Westminster Abbey but was defeated and killed by William the Bastard, Duke of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings. The surviving members of the witan met in London and elected King Edward's young nephew Edgar the Ætheling as king.
The Normans advanced to the south bank of the Thames opposite London, where they defeated an English attack and burned Southwark but were unable to storm the bridge. They moved upstream and crossed the river at Wallingford before advancing on London from the north-west. The resolve of the English leadership to resist collapsed and the chief citizens of London went out together with the leading members of the Church and aristocracy to submit to William at Berkhamstead, although according to some accounts there was a subsequent violent clash when the Normans reached the city. Having occupied London, William was crowned king in Westminster Abbey.
Norman and Medieval London (1066 – late 15th century)
A depiction of the imprisonment of Charles, Duke of Orléans, in the Tower of London from a 15th-century manuscript.
The new Norman regime established new fortresses within the city to dominate the native population. By far the most important of these was the Tower of London at the eastern end of the city, where the initial timber fortification was rapidly replaced by the construction of the first stone castle in England. The smaller forts of Baynard's Castle and Montfichet's Castle were also established along the waterfront. King William also granted a charter in 1067 confirming the city's existing rights, privileges and laws. Its growing self-government was consolidated by the election rights granted by King John in 1199 and 1215.
In 1097 William Rufus, the son of William the Conqueror began the construction of 'Westminster Hall', which became the focus of the Palace of Westminster.
In 1176 construction began of the most famous incarnation of London Bridge (completed in 1209) which was built on the site of several earlier timber bridges. This bridge would last for 600 years, and remained the only bridge across the River Thames until 1739.
In 1216 during the First Barons' War London was occupied by Prince Louis of France, who had been called in by the baronial rebels against King John and was acclaimed as King of England in St Paul's Cathedral. However, following John's death in 1217 Louis's supporters reverted to their Plantagenet allegiance, rallying round John's son Henry III, and Louis was forced to withdraw from England.
Over the following centuries, London would shake off the heavy French cultural and linguistic influence which had been there since the times of the Norman conquest. The city would figure heavily in the development of Early Modern English.
During the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 London was invaded by rebels led by Wat Tyler. A group of peasants stormed the Tower of London and executed the Lord Chancellor, Archbishop Simon Sudbury, and the Lord Treasurer. The peasants looted the city and set fire to numerous buildings. Tyler was stabbed to death by the Lord Mayor William Walworth in a confrontation at Smithfield and the revolt collapsed.
Trade increased steadily during the Middle Ages, and London grew rapidly as a result. In 1100 London's population was somewhat more than 15,000. By 1300 it had grown to roughly 80,000. London lost at least half of its population during the Black Death in the mid-14th century, but its economic and political importance stimulated a rapid recovery despite further epidemics. Trade in London was organised into various guilds, which effectively controlled the city, and elected the Lord Mayor of the City of London.
Medieval London was made up of narrow and twisting streets, and most of the buildings were made from combustible materials such as timber and straw, which made fire a constant threat, while sanitation in cities was of low-quality.
Sumber:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_London
National Monument
The National Monument, or "Monas" as it is popularly called, is one of the monuments built during the Sukarno era of fierce nationalism. The top of the National Monument (Monas) is Freedom Square. It stands for the people's determination to achieve freedom and the crowning of their efforts in the Proclamation of Independence in August 1945. The 137-meter tall marble obelisk is topped with a flame coated with 35 kg of gold. The base houses a historical museum and a hall for meditations. The monument is open to the public and upon request the lift can carry visitors to the top, which offers a bird's eye view on the city and the sea.
Go early to beat the crowds and the haze. It is easy for the less physically able as lifts take visitors to the top. The diorama exhibition in the basement gives such a distorted view of Indonesian history - thanks to the dictator Suharto wanting to brainwash the nation - it's amusing. This imposing obelisk is Jakarta's most famous landmark. Construction started in 1961 under President Soekarno but was not completed until 1975, under President Soeharto. The monument houses a couple of museums. The Freedom Hall depicts Indonesia's struggle for independence through a series of dioramas, whereas the Hall of Contemplation displays the original Declaration of Independence document and a recording of the speech. An elevator takes one to the observation platform, which commands a bird's-eye view of the cityscape.
Senin, 20 November 2017
Modern London Bridge
The current London Bridge was designed by architect Lord Holford and engineers Mott, Hay and Anderson. It was constructed by contractors John Mowlem and Co from 1967 to 1972, and opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 17 March 1973.It comprises three spans of prestressed-concrete box girders, a total of 928 feet (283 m) long. The cost of £4 million (£51.9 million in 2016), was met entirely by the Bridge House Estates charity. The current bridge was built in the same location as Rennie's bridge, with the previous bridge remaining in use while the first two girders were constructed upstream and downstream. Traffic was then transferred onto the two new girders, and the previous bridge demolished to allow the final two central girders to be added.
The current London Bridge, pictured in January 1987. The skyscraper in the background ithe National Westminster Tower (Tower 42), opened six years prior.
On Remembrance Day 2004, several bridges in London were furnished with red lighting as part of a night-time flight along the river by wartime aircraft. London Bridge was the one bridge not subsequently stripped of the illuminations, which are regularly switched on at night.
The current London Bridge is often shown in films, news and documentaries showing the throng of commuters journeying to work into the City from London Bridge Station (south to north). An example of this is actor Hugh Grant crossing the bridge north to south during the morning rush hour, in the 2002 film About a Boy.
On 11 July 2009, as part of the annual Lord Mayor's charity Appeal and to mark the 800th anniversary of Old London Bridge's completion in the reign of King John, the Lord Mayor and Freemen of the City drove a flock of sheep across the bridge, supposedly by ancient right.
Sumber:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Bridge
Serves 4
Tools
- Large saucepan for broth
- Small sauté pan
- Large teflon pan for chicken mushroom
- Saucepan for cooking noodles
Ingredients
- Chicken broth (Cooking time: 1hr)
- 2 litres water
- 3 chicken wings
- Few pieces of celery and carrot
- 30 gr butter
- 1 onion, sliced
- 1 shallot, sliced
- 2 cloves of garlic, minced
- a pinch of grated nutmeg
- salt and pepper to taste
- bok choi sliced, set aside for serving
- spring onion, sliced and set aside for garnish
- Mushroom Chicken stir fry (Cooking time: 20 min)
- 3 tablespoon of sesame oil
- 1 onion, sliced
- 1 shallot, sliced
- 2 cloves of garlic, minced
- 2 cm of ginger, minced
- 200 gr chicken breast, cut into small pieces
- 200 gr mushroom, cut in fours
- 4 tablespoons of kecap manis
- 2 tablespoon of oyster sauce
- pepper to taste
- Noodles (Cooking time: 10 min)
- 250 gr egg noodles
- 2 litre water to cook
- sesame oil
Method
- Chicken broth
- Combine cold water, chicken and bring to a boil. In the meantime, melt the butter and sauté the onion, shallot, garlic and ginger for 5 minutes until it's soft and aromatic. Add in to the chicken broth and the nutmeg. Put on the lid, continue cooking and keep simmering for 1 hour.
- When the chicken wings are cooked, take them out and let cool. Discard the chicken skin and shred the meat, set aside for the chicken mushroom.
- Strain the broth and return to the sauce pan and keep warm with low heat.
- Mushroom Chicken stir fry
- Heat the sesame oil in a wok/teflon pan and sauté the garlic, shallot and onion until soft and aromatic.
- Increase the heat and add the cut chicken, cook and stir for 5 minutes. Add in the mushroom, stir and mix well.
- Add in the soy sauce and the oyster sauce and mix well, add in the pepper to taste.
- If you have, put on a lid and cook for another 3 minutes on medium heat.
- Noodles
- Cook the noodles according to the package, meanwhile heat the sesame oil on another pan. When the noodles are cooked, dump it into the pan and sauté it for 1 - 2 minutes until the noodles are coated with the oil. Ready for serving.
- Serving
- Prepare 4 small bowls and 4 large bowl.
- Cook the bok choi for 2 minutes and serve in the small bowls with the broth.
- Divide the noodles in the large bowls. Sprinkle the mushroom chicken on top of the noodles and garnish with the spring onions.
- Ready to eat! Enjoy!
- 100 gram tepung terigu
- 2 sendok makan tepung tapioka
- 1/2 sendok teh kaldu bubuk
- 1 sendok teh garam halus
- 350 gram ayam fillet
- Cabai merah
- Bawang putih
- Kaldu bubuk
Setelah semua bahan di atas lengkap, kamu bisa langsung membuat ayam geprek dengan mengikuti cara di bawah ini:
Sumber:
https://food.idntimes.com/recipe/yoshi/gak-perlu-beli-ini-resep-ayam-geprek-yang-mudah-1/full
- Campurkan tepung terigu, tepung tapioka, 1/2 sendok teh garam halus dan kaldu bubuk. Aduk sampai rata.
- Ambil 2 sendok makan campuran adonan tersebut. Letakkan di piring atau wadah lain. Tambahkan sedikit air dan aduk hingga rata.
- Masukan ayam fillet ke adonan cair tersebut, lalu pindahkan ke campuran tepung yang kering.
- Panaskan minyak dan goreng ayam hingga matang.
- Untuk membuat sambal, haluskan cabai merah, bawang putih, kaldu bubuk dan garam halus.
- Tambahkan sedikit minyak panas (kurang lebih 1 sendok makan) ke sambal. Aduk lagi hingga rata.
- Letakkan daging ayam yang telah digoreng di atas sambal tersebut. Gunakan ulek untuk sedikit menghancurkan daging ayam.
- Ayam geprek kamu siap dihidangkan!
Sumber:
https://food.idntimes.com/recipe/yoshi/gak-perlu-beli-ini-resep-ayam-geprek-yang-mudah-1/full
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